第 10 讲 小句之下(二):动词词组、副词词组与介词短语
从限定成分到事件,读懂动词词组的递归时态、语态与情态,并区分其他词组和微型小句式介词短语。
has been producing 不是把三个动词简单堆起来:它从“我现在说话”出发,经由一个过去的时间框架,抵达当时持续进行的生产过程。动词词组(verbal group)把言语事件的人际“现在”与所谈事件的经验时间连接起来,这正是理解英语复杂时态的入口。
本讲承接名词词组的经验/逻辑双重分析,依次讨论动词词组、其他词组与介词短语。对应 IFG4 第 6 章,重点为 6.3–6.6;DFG 第 5 章重点为 2.2–2.4。配套阅读见全书第 6 章笔记,进一步标注练习见DFG 第 5 章练习。课件第 2 页的三道复习题及两个名词词组,都在文末逐题解答。
本讲提纲
- 词组与短语
- 名词词组复习
- 多变量与单变量
- 经验/逻辑结构
- 人际/语篇贡献
- 动词词组
- 三种元功能贡献
- Finite 到 Event
- 时态与序列化
- 语态与情态
- 非限定与归一性
- 词组复合体
- 其他词组
- 副词及比较嵌入
- 连词词组
- 介词词组
- 介词短语
- 微型过程与范围
- 外层功能与降阶
- 词类与功能映射
- 名词词组复习
一、动词词组是什么:词类、边界与功能(第 3–7 页)
动词词组是动词的扩展,其成员通常是词汇动词(lexical verb)与助动词(auxiliary verb)。课件列出的词汇动词有 run, darken, sneeze, think, say, be, have;语法性的助动词有 do, be, have, will, may, must。同一个拼写如 be/have 可以属于不同功能用法,必须看它是在独立表达过程,还是在组织另一事件的时态、语态或情态。
词组还可以含否定副词 not;它在小句人际结构中是语气附加语(mood Adjunct),或与限定成分(Finite)融合。少数表达意愿的形容词构造也参与动词性意义,如 keen, eager, willing:they are keen to get started 表示对行动的积极准备。课件的 willings 按 willing 理解。不要由此推论所有 be + adjective 都是同一种动词词组:is keen to do 的意态化读法,与 is tall 的关系小句分析须分开。
与名词词组、具有比较构造的副词词组不同,动词词组本身不通过嵌入名词词组、介词短语或小句来扩展。在小句语气结构中,它体现 Finite 与谓体(Predicator);在及物性结构中,它体现过程(Process)。Are they leaving? 的 are…leaving 仍是一个动词词组,只因人际结构的疑问顺序而非连续体现;they 是小句的主语,不是被嵌入动词词组的成分。
| Are | they | leaving | |
| 小句语气 | Finite | Subject | Predicator |
| 小句经验 | Process (part 1) | Actor | Process (part 2) |
| 词组内部 | Finite | Event | |
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | |
这里应分清三个分析面向。经验贡献是构建行动、活动、发生、意识或关系,并把它组织为在时间中展开的过程。课件问答 So when is this thing scheduled to produce results, Frank? — Oh, it’s been producing results for a long time 中,has 相对于 had/will have 选择现在;has been 相对于 is/is going to 在这个现在中再选择过去;been producing 相对于 had produced/been going to produce 又把生产定位为相对于前一时间的现在。
| It | has | been | producing | results | for a long time | |
| 语气 | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Complement | Adjunct | |
| 经验 | Actor | Process: material | Goal | Extent: duration | ||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||||
| 动词词组内部 | Finite | Auxiliary | Event | |||
| 时态序列 | α: present | β: past | γ: present / Event | |||
人际贡献是归一性(polarity)和情态(modality)。those birds are flying across the sky 将飞行时间定位于实际言语“现在”;those birds may/may not/must be flying across the sky 则把是否实现飞行置于概率尺度。must 的推断仍是评估,不是没有评估的无条件事实。
| those birds | are | flying | across the sky | |
| 语气 | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Adjunct |
| 经验 | Actor | Process: material | Location: space | |
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||
| 词组内部 | Finite | Event | ||
| 时态序列 | α: present | β: present / Event | ||
语篇贡献是把这些意义作为消息呈现。those birds fly across the sky every day around sunset, but these don’t 中,don’t 保留对比的限定与否定,其余连续内容可从前文恢复。语调还可使 are、not 或 flying 成为新闻性焦点:强调“确实在飞”、否定“不是在飞”、或对比“是在飞而不是停着”。课件第 7 页用突出显示区别这些读法;同样的词序并不保证同样的信息焦点。不能给词组机械增设一套与小句相同的 Theme–Rheme 独立结构:词组级元功能是对结构、顺序和语音体现的共同贡献。
二、从 Finite 到 Event:多变量与单变量结构(第 8–15 页)
课件第 9 页把动词词组画成桥:一端是相对于言语现在的时间/情态定位,另一端是经验事件及其分类。前端由 Finite 体现,如 did/does/will 或 can/will/must;末端由事件(Event)体现,如 building, producing, baking, swallow。Event 通常由词汇动词、也可由替代动词 do 实现。中间的辅助成分(Auxiliary)构成短桥或长桥。
will have been producing 的结构是 Finite ^ Auxiliary ^ Auxiliary ^ Event;will have been going to be producing 再加入一个辅助时间构造。课件把 been going to 按一整个次级将来构造显示,不能按空格数计算选择次数。
| will | have | been going to | be | producing | |
| 多变量结构 | Finite | Auxiliary | Auxiliary | Auxiliary | Event |
| 逻辑依存 | α: Head | β | γ | δ | ε: Event |
| 时间选择 | α: future | β: past | γ: future | δ: present | Event |
多变量结构(multivariate structure)区分功能各异的 Finite、Polarity、Auxiliary 与 Event,一般式为 Finite ^ (Polarity ^) (Auxiliaryⁿ ^) Event。括号表示可选项,^ 表先后顺序。produces 中 Finite 与 Event 合并;may produce, must produce, should produce 用情态而非时间建立前端参照。
| produces | |
| 多变量结构 | Finite/Event |
| 逻辑结构 | α: present / Event |
| 词形 | V-s |
图中 will not have been going to be being produced,依次为 Finite、Polarity、四个 Auxiliary、Event。功能性标注中,have 给次级过去,been going to 给次级将来,be 给次级现在,being 与末词的分词形构成被动。否定与被动不是额外的时态。
| will | not | have | been going to | be | being | produced | |
| 多变量结构 | Finite | Polarity | Auxiliary | Auxiliary | Auxiliary | Auxiliary | Event |
| 系统选择 | α: future | negative | β: past | γ: future | δ: present | passive | Event: v-en |
单变量结构(univariate structure)不是再分类这些不同作用,而是追踪重复的依存关系:限定动词词组以首项 Finite 为中心语(Head),后续项目依次为修饰语(Modifier),记作 α、β、γ、δ、ε。第 13 页的同一词组因此可同时标成 Finite–Auxiliary–Auxiliary–Auxiliary–Event 与 α–β–γ–δ–ε。
从说话时间 t₀ 出发,will 指向一个将来 t₁;have 回到相对于 t₁ 的过去 t₂;been going to 指向相对于 t₂ 的将来 t₃;be producing 把生产事件放在相对于 t₃ 的现在 t₄。图的折线表示相对时间关系,不意味着每个时间都按绝对年代从早到晚排列。第 15 页进一步说明词序与词形协同编码依存:will 后接原形 have,have 后接 v-en 形式 been,be 后接 v-ing 形式 producing。要识别的是“这个辅助构造要求下一项什么形式”,而不是把每个词各自孤立贴上“完成/进行”。
三、时态是递归选择,不是一串不可分析的名称(第 16–30 页)
时态(TENSE)把言语时间与事件时间的联系建构为一个或多个相对时间关系。第 16、18 页的例子只有四次选择:future → past → future → present,末端 producing 是 Event。第 17 页区分两个系统:时态类型(tense type)每次选 past/present/future;时态序列化(tense serialisation)决定停止还是再选。只选一次即 did produce/produced, does produce/produces, will produce;再选则形成二至五项序列。
基本时态(primary tense)是直接相对于说话“现在”的第一项,限定动词词组通常必选;若 Finite 是情态操作词,则这一时间指示由情态取代。次级时态(secondary tense)是后续相对于前一所选时间的选择,仍有过去、现在、将来,却有不同体现。
先会识别五种动词形式(第 19 页)
| 形式 | be | have | take | lift | 情态词的特殊性 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| V 原形/不定式 | (to) be | (to) have | (to) take | (to) lift | 不按普通词汇动词补全范式 |
| V-s 现在型 | am, are, is | has, have | take(s) | lift(s) | 原表此行示 may/might;两者不是普通现在/过去对立 |
| V-ed 过去型 | was, were | had | took | lifted | 不据拼写机械赋过去 |
| V-en 分词型 | been | had | taken | lifted | — |
| V-ing 分词型 | being | having | taking | lifting | — |
-ed/-en 是形式类别的记号,不要求单词真的有该字尾:took 属 V-ed 型,taken 属 V-en 型;had/lifted 两个类别同形。先看构造位置,再定类别。
基本过去、现在、将来(第 20–24 页)
基本过去把所述事件放在说话之前,用 V-ed 型体现。第 21 页的捕鲸回顾以 started, concentrated, spread, shifted, introduced, shifted, intensified 推进历史,各项都是基本过去;其中 were whaling 另有次级现在,后面单独分析。using sailing vessels and row boats 与 fired from guns 是非限定形式,不能因为在过去叙事中就都叫“简单过去”。
基本现在的解释依过程类型与语篇而变。第 22 页 I think it’s pretty 中 think/is 可以呈现当前的意识与状态;baleen whales filter krill and small fish through their baleen plates 的物质过程则作种类层面的惯常/一般性描述。第 23 页的鲸类报告中,关系与存在表达也随语类作一般特性解读,不专指此刻的一次状态。该报告涉及 are, filter, is, is seen, reaches, are, put on, are, blow, continue to be;完整语篇和逐项判定见课堂练习。
基本将来通常用 will/shall + V 把事件放在说话之后。第 24 页指出 shall 常见于提供,如 Shall I get you a drink?,其他位置更多用 will;这不是各英语变体一律禁止陈述 shall。原问答是 Mummy, I shall grow up before Anna, won’t I? — Not much darling, she’s about the same age as you。孩子主句用 shall,标签用 won’t;课件提醒方言、年龄与使用习惯都有变异。这里要学会区分词组时间选择与小句中提供、求证等言语功能,不把每个 shall/will 自动归入纯时间读法。
次级时态的体现(第 25–27 页)
第 25 页的 had been going to be being written (for several weeks at the time you asked) 是 past → past → future → present + passive。自发对话不断建立时间参照,便能产生这类平时较少孤立使用的构造;“复杂”不等于无规则。
| 时态类型 | 基本时态:相对言语现在 | 次级时态:相对已选时间 |
|---|---|---|
| future | will + V | be going to + V;也可 be about to + V |
| present | V-s 型 | be + V-ing |
| past | V-ed 型 | have + V-en |
By 1500, they were whaling off Greenland; by the 1700s, off Atlantic America; and by the 1800s, in the south Pacific, Antarctic and Bering Sea 中,were 的过去形式建立基本过去,be + whaling 表示在该过去中正在进行。后两个地点分句省略共享内容;不能凭省略说它们没有时间联系。图中的 for several months a year 说明持续展开,by 1500 给历史定位;环境成分支持时态解释,但不增加词组内部时态数。
| By 1500 | they | were | whaling | off Greenland | |
| 语气 | Adjunct | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Adjunct |
| 经验 | Location: time | Actor | Process: material | Location: space | |
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | |||
| 时态 | α: past | β: present / Event | |||
按相对框架逆向命名(第 28–30 页)
原例 It’s been going to have been being fixed 的 It’s 是 It has。从说话端向事件端:基本现在 → 次级过去 → 次级将来 → 次级过去 → 次级现在,最后加被动。因此完整名称为 passive: present in past in future in past in present。第 28 页的括号结构依次标 be–en 被动、be–ing 现在、have–en 过去、be going to–V 将来、have–en 过去、-s 现在;名称从最深层往基本时态读,恰与建立参照的方向相反。
| It | has | been going to | have | been | being | fixed | |
| 语气 | Subject | Finite | Predicator | ||||
| 经验 | Goal / Medium | Process: material | |||||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | |||||
| 时态与语态 | α: present | β: past + γ: future | δ: past | ε: present | passive | Event: v-en | |
| 第 30 页例子 | 正向选择 | 逆向名称 |
|---|---|---|
| (they) produce | present | present |
| (they) will produce | future | future |
| (they) will be producing | future → present | present in future |
| (they) were producing | past → present | present in past |
| (they) were going to produce | past → future | future in past |
| (they) had been producing | past → past → present | present in past in past |
IFG4 6.3.2 进一步给出停选规则:基本项 α 之外,将来只选一次;现在只选一次且位于最深层;相同次级时态不能连续重复。这使有限、非情态化系统的实际序列受约束。下图为站内教学复原,只显示时态,不替代课件完整的情态、语态和非限定网络。
有限非情态化 System I 的教学网络:3 个基本时态 × 12 种次要序列,包含无次要时态的路径,共 36 个。仅展示时态,不含完整语态、情态和非限定系统。
从左向右点击选项,每一次点击都是一次语法选择。
所选特征的结构体现会汇总在这里。
选到带例句的特征时,这里会给出例句。
四、为什么需要长时态:对话与其他时间资源(第 31–36 页)
工作安排:未来话题不等于每个词组都选未来
| 原对话句次 | 课件例句 | 选择与解释 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | No, it’ll be perfectly all right, Reynard. | 基本未来:安抚并预测后续情况 |
| 2 | I’ve got about a week of fairly hard work after the 4th of July, this CSC stuff, you see. | 课件按当前拥有未来工作量处理,不把 have got 当作已完成工作 |
| 3 | and after that I shall have another week pretty hard about say the 7th to the 14th of August; | 基本未来:切换到另一段时间 |
| 4 | I’ll be doing the Burgos Award from the 20th to the 25th, | future → present,即 present in future |
| 5 | but I’ve really got about 3 weeks less than that of hardish work, spread over those two months, you see. | 当前拥有/安排未来工作量 |
| 6 | The rest of the time, I’ll have plenty of time to deal with them. | 基本未来 |
第 32 页的说明恰对应这六项:1、6 为简单未来;2、5 为当前的拥有;3 是基本未来;4 是未来中的现在。after the 4th of July, after that, from the 20th to the 25th, over those two months, the rest of the time 分别组织环境与衔接框架。它们帮助读者理解时间参照,不能直接代替 Finite 的语法选择。
合成器对话:不断添加一个新的相对时间
| 轮次 | 原对话 | 词组分析 |
|---|---|---|
| A | Can I use the synthesiser? | can:情态,求取使用许可/可能性 |
| B | Well I’m afraid we use it ourselves this morning. | use:基本现在;用安排或惯常表达回应 |
| A | What, every morning? Are you using it now? | are using:present → present,转向此刻实际使用 |
| B | Yes, ’fraid so. | 肯定并省略已给出的内容 |
| A | How about this afternoon? Are you going to be using it then? | present → future → present |
| B | No. But this afternoon’s no good. | 否定可用性;is 是基本现在 |
| A | Why not? | 求取原因,省略的内容由前文恢复 |
| B | It’s going to be being tested. | present → future → present,加 passive |
| A | Come off it! It’s been going to be being tested for ages. | present → past → future → present,加 passive |
| A | It’ll’ve been going to’ve been being tested every day for about a fortnight. | future → past → future → past → present,加 passive |
第 34 页说明:三项以内的序列常用,不必先有这样的对话,例如开场直接问 are you going to be using this machine this afternoon? 很自然。四、五项则罕见,通常需先建立共同的时间历史。课件用 semiotic folie à deux 比喻两人交谈共同累积符号复杂性,并附该法语表达的精神医学字面释义;这里是话语互动的比喻,不是给谈话者作医学诊断。
时间意义还依赖三类资源。第一,过程类型影响“现在”的解释(第 35 页):物质过程 he visits our department [every Tuesday] 是习惯;he’s visiting our department [right now] 是一次当下行动。心理过程 he likes our department 通常自然地呈现当前态度;he’s liking our department [better and better] 把喜欢建构为逐步形成/加强的过程,并非心理动词“绝对不能进行”。
第二,环境成分改变基本现在的语境解释(第 36 页):we sail to KK every Tuesday 是当前习惯,we sail to KK tomorrow 是当前计划。词组形式相同,完整小句的时间意义不同。
第三,时间/条件依存小句约束基本时态。独立小句可对比 they had/have/will have the car yesterday/today/tomorrow;常规的 if/when 条件或时间小句则多以过去/非过去区别,不另用未来 will:if/when they have the car tomorrow, we’ll drive down the coast。这只针对相应时间/条件读法;不能扩展成“任何从句里都禁用 will”,意愿用法、投射内容等另有条件。
五、语态、情态与非限定词组(第 37–46 页)
被动:增加语态,而非再增加一个时态
语态(VOICE)区分主动(active)与被动(passive)。主动无显性被动标记;被动基本式为 be + V-en,IFG4 6.3.2 也讨论 get + V-en。从 see 出发,加入 be seen,再给 be 现在型词形,得到 is seen。这同时说明 V-en 不是基本过去:is seen 完全可以是现在被动。
该总结框先区分非限定入口的完整体/非完整体,示例为 to beat/beating;再区分限定入口中的情态与时态:基本时态例有 took, lifted, takes, will take;次级时态例有 to have taken, to be taking, to be going to take;被动例为 to be taken,以 be ^ V-en 添加。to be taking 是完整体入口加次级现在,不是“to 的将来时”。图下脚注约定:V-s 型统称现在式,也包括第一、第二人称及复数的无 -s 形式;be 的 am/are/is 都列入这一类,不可据“没有 s 字母”否认它们的现在选择。
情态:同样联系“实际现在”,但沿评估尺度定位
第 39 页中,限定入口可选择时态,也可选择情态,以概率、通常性、义务、意愿或潜能把过程联系到言语实际。典型情态操作词包括 will, would, can, could, may, might, should, must, ought to。它们替代的是基本时态选择,不是排斥所有时间关系:Our children should have learned western knowledge in school 加次级过去;Our children could be learning western knowledge in school 加次级现在;还可加被动。
| Our children | should | have | learned | western knowledge | in school | |
| 语气 | Subject | Finite: modal | Predicator | Complement | Adjunct | |
| 经验 | Senser | Process: mental | Phenomenon | Location: place | ||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||||
| 词组系统 | α: modality | β: past | Event: v-en | |||
| Our children | could | be | learning | western knowledge | in school | |
| 语气 | Subject | Finite: modal | Predicator | Complement | Adjunct | |
| 经验 | Senser | Process: mental | Phenomenon | Location: place | ||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||||
| 词组系统 | α: modality | β: present | Event: v-ing | |||
第 40 页补出三种形式资源。情态动词的完整列举为 will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must; ought to, used to; need, dare,并对照 needs to, dares to, is to, has to, has got to, had better。其中 need/dare 的操作词用法须用倒装和直接否定诊断,如 Need you do it?/You needn’t do it;不能把有词汇词形的 needs/dares 与操作词形式无条件合并。
情态副词(Mood Adjuncts)列为 probably, presumably, predictably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably, assuredly, surely, certainly, obviously; sometimes, occasionally, usually, always, seldom, never。相关复杂动词表达列为 be willing/prepared/able/anxious/determined/keen/reluctant to,以及 be allowed/permitted/entitled/supposed/expected/required/intended/designated/obliged/desired to, be prohibited from。课件明确把后一类 be + adjective/passive verb 作为词组复合体分析,如 α am willing、β to go;因此情态意义可以超出一个 modal Finite 的实现方式。
may/might 的差异通常不是基本现在/过去差异;can/could 表能力时则有 I can do it now/I could do it then 这样的时间对照(DFG 5: 2.2.6)。纯未来的 will 可与过去/现在或 be going to 作时间对照,概率 will 可与 must/may 或 probably 对照;that’ll be the postman 若是对眼前人物的推断,就不是邮递员将来才出现。
第 41 页同时区分四个维度。情态值(value)为 high/median/low,以 certain/probable/possible 示范;取向(orientation)为 subjective/objective,以 I’m convinced/it’s certain 对比;显隐性(manifestation)为 implicit/explicit,以 he must be/I’m sure he is 对比。显性客观资源又可作性质(quality:probable)或事物(thing:probability)呈现;后者意味着名词化包装,不是另一个情态动词。类型分情态化(modalization)的 probability/usuality,及意态化(modulation)的 obligation/readiness;readiness 再分 inclination/ability,对应 probably, usually, supposed to, keen to, able to。
IFG4 4.5 的核心教学区分为概率、通常性、义务、意愿,能力/潜能需单独说明边界。课件将 readiness 进一步细分,并不意味着所有能力陈述都在评估某一次事件发生的概率。下面复用站内 IFG4 教学网络;显隐性合入取向,不要求读者把两种绘图布局误认作矛盾。
三个同时系统分别回答评估哪一维、强度如何、以什么来源呈现。显隐性在取向的两条分支分别展开。
从左向右点击选项,每一次点击都是一次语法选择。
所选特征的结构体现会汇总在这里。
选到带例句的特征时,这里会给出例句。
第 42 页把情态放在 positive/negative 两极之间。信息交换是 it is/it isn’t,其中概率从 possibly/it may be,经 probably/it will be,到 certainly/it must be;通常性从 sometimes 经 usually 到 always。行动交换是 do!/don’t!,义务从 allowed/may do、supposed/will do 到 required/must do;意愿为 willing → keen → determined。其中 “indicative type/imperative type” 表示与信息/行动交换的关联,不是要求所有义务语句都在形式上是祈使句。
情态化矩阵:程度、语调与两种否定(第 43 页)
原表先区别中值 probable 与外侧 possible–certain,再细分 possible、virtually certain、certain;另有中性(neutral)、试探/推导的潜在色彩(undertone)与调核突出、带保留的断言色彩(overtone)。下表逐格保留原表词形;“肯定;否定(i);否定(ii)”依次排列,括号表示替代表达,方括号表示否定情态本身而非简单否定命题内容。
| 色彩 | probable | possible | virtually certain | certain |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| neutral | probably;will;两类否定均 won’t | possibly;may, can* (could);may not;[can’t (couldn’t)] | 原表空格 | certainly;must (will);can’t (couldn’t);[may not] |
| undertone:tentative, deduced | presumably;would (will);两类否定均 wouldn’t (won’t) | perhaps;might, could;might not;[couldn’t (can’t)] | assuredly;should, ought to;shouldn’t, oughtn’t to;[might not] | obviously;must;couldn’t (can’t);[might not] |
| overtone:assertive, with reservation,调核突出 | predictably (tone 1);would;两类否定均 wouldn’t | conceivably (tone 4);may, might, could;might not;[can’t, couldn’t] | surely (tone 4);should, ought to;shouldn’t, oughtn’t to;[might not] | surely (tone 1);must;can’t, couldn’t;[may not, might not] |
星号说明该可能性用法通常在陈述式用 may、疑问式用 can;它不是说陈述式永不出现 can。tone 1 与 tone 4 是原表的语调类别提示;overtone 行斜体操作词要求结合调核突出来解释。空格表示原表没有列出,不证明该意义在英语中无法表达。也不能把 should 永远固定为义务:推断“照理应该如此”属于概率读法。
意态化矩阵:行动者的准备与外部要求(第 44 页)
此表用 active 表行动者的意愿/能力,用 passive 表行动者受到的许可与要求;这是语义取向,不是说每个单词所在小句都已经是语法被动。passive 一侧先分 permission 与 necessity,后者再分 obligation、compulsion。上半表依 willing/insistent, allowed, obliged/supposed, required 建立含意,下半表依 able, entitled, desired/expected, designated/intended 建立含意。neutral 与 oblique(hypothetical, tentative)作直接/假设或试探对照。
| 上半表:准备与要求 | inclination/ability:willing, insistent | permission:allowed | obligation:obliged, supposed | compulsion:required |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| neutral 肯定 | will | can, may | 原表空格 | must |
| neutral 否定(i)/(ii) | 原表主要列 won’t | needn’t/mustn’t, can’t | 原表空格 | can’t, mustn’t/needn’t |
| oblique 肯定 | would | could, might | should, ought to | 原表空格 |
| oblique 否定(i)/(ii) | 原表主要列 wouldn’t | needn’t/mustn’t, couldn’t | shouldn’t, oughtn’t to/needn’t | 原表空格 |
| 下半表:能力与规定 | ability:able | permission:entitled | obligation:desired, expected | compulsion:designated, intended |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| neutral 肯定 | can | can | shall | is to |
| neutral 否定(i)/(ii) | 原表主要列 can’t | needn’t/mustn’t, can’t | shan’t, mayn’t/needn’t | isn’t to/needn’t |
| oblique 肯定 | could | could | should | was to |
| oblique 否定(i)/(ii) | 原表主要列 couldn’t | needn’t/mustn’t, couldn’t | shouldn’t, mightn’t/needn’t | wasn’t to/needn’t |
原表脚注特别指出:相应操作词在 willing 意义下语音弱,在 insistent 意义下突出;desired/expected 项通常限于第一人称疑问,例如 shall we come with you?。mayn’t, shan’t, mightn’t 是原表保留的形式,不能当作所有现代英语变体同样常用的拼写。
非限定入口:体与次级时态(第 45–46 页)
非限定动词词组(non-finite verbal group)不选择基本时态或 modal Finite,但可选择体(aspect)、次级时态和语态。课件把非完整体(imperfective/realis)与完整体(perfective)对比:前者以 V-ing 将过程看成已经展开,后者以 (to) V 把过程看成一个整体、虚拟或待实现的行动。典型例子 with the Basques using sailing vessels and row boats 对 I told you to ask again。这是构造的意义倾向,不保证现实中每个 -ing 都已经实际发生,也不保证每个 to 都在未来。
| having | used | |
| 多变量结构 | Auxiliary | Event |
| 体与次级时态 | imperfective + β: past | Event: v-en |
| 词形 | V-ing | V-en |
with the Basques having used sailing vessels and row-boats 是 past imperfective:起始 having 的 -ing 体现非完整体,have + used 给次级过去。to be asking again 是 present perfective:to 标完整体,be + asking 给次级现在。体在入口体现,后接时间或被动;不能见到末词 -ing 就把整个词组都叫非完整体。
| to | be | asking | |
| 体与次级时态 | perfective | β: present | Event: v-ing |
| 多变量结构 | Structure marker | Auxiliary | Event |
六、归一性与动词词组复合体(第 47–50 页)
纯否定由 not 体现;与 Finite 合并时如 don’t know, shouldn’t have come,既携带时间或情态,也携带 negative。分写时,not 在词组结构中可单列 Polarity,在小句人际结构中作 mood Adjunct。seldom, rarely, never 同时涉及通常性,hardly, scarcely 同时涉及程度强度,通常属于小句的语气附加语,不是动词词组内部的 Auxiliary。
| don’t | know | |
| 多变量结构 | Finite/Polarity | Event |
| 逻辑与系统 | α: present / negative | β: Event |
| shouldn’t | have | come | |
| 多变量结构 | Finite/Polarity | Auxiliary | Event |
| 逻辑与系统 | α: modal / negative | β: past | γ: Event |
词组复合体(verbal group complex)必须区别于一个词组内部的辅助链。第 48–49 页中,并列(parataxis)表示添加或选择,用数字记号;主从(hypotaxis)以 Head 与依存非限定词组组织,用 α、β。第 49 页三个 with-to 原例是 I’d like to talk to you、Very well, if you do not choose to discuss it,、A little later, Niemand declined a second one and started to leave:分别为 α would like + β to talk,α do not choose + β to discuss,α started + β to leave,后项皆完整体;第二例还包含 Polarity,第三例的 declined… and started… 外部连接与 started/to leave 内部主从不在同一级。DFG 补例 I kept thinking about it 则是 α kept、β thinking,后项为非完整体;并列补例 He huffed and puffed as hard as he could 为 1 + 2。
| started | to leave | |
| 词组复合体 | α | β: perfective |
| 组内多变量结构 | Finite/Event | Event: leave |
| 组内系统 | α: past / Event | perfective / Event |
第 50 页并列原例为 She was huffing and puffing。本站分析分为项 1 与 2:1 中 was 是基本过去,be + huffing 给次级现在;2 的 puffing 依共享参照读作现在/Event。过程的复合不要求把两个动作自动切成两个独立小句。
| She | was | huffing | and | puffing | |
| 词组并列 | 1 | + | 2 | ||
| 语气 | Subject | Finite | Predicator (part 1) | Predicator (part 2) | |
| 经验 | Behaver | Process: behavioural | |||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | |||
使役(causative)复合体把额外施事(Agent)引入过程,可非连续体现:but he forced his face and his voice to be calm 中,复合体 α forced 与 β to be 被另一个小句成分隔开。第 50 页另在词组内部将 forced 的基本过去 α 与 Event β 分析出来(同词实现);to be 可以合标为 β 完整体/Event,也可以再把体入口 β 与 Event γ 区分。记号精细度不同,不意味着突然增加另一件独立事件。
| but | he | forced | his face and his voice | to be | calm | |
| 复合体配列 | α: causative | β: dependent | ||||
| 语气 | Conjunctive Adjunct | Subject | Finite/Predicator | Complement | Predicator (dependent) | Complement |
| 作格经验(使役关系过程) | Agent | Process: causative (part 1) | Medium / Carrier | Process: relational (part 2) | Attribute | |
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||||
七、其他词组:副词、连词与介词(第 51–54 页)
其他词组的前置修饰通常由语法性项目体现,词汇扩展潜力不如名词词组。副词词组(adverbial group)以副词为 Head,整体可作环境、语气或评论附加语;deeply → more deeply 表示从单词到修饰结构。比较构造扩展潜力最大:more quickly than we realised 含嵌入小句作 Postmodifier;as quietly as a mouse 含比较介词短语作 Postmodifier。
| much | more | quickly | than we realised | |
| 逻辑结构 | γ: Premodifier | β: Premodifier | α: Head | Postmodifier |
| 比较语义 | Intensification | Comparison | Manner: quality | Embedded comparison clause |
IFG4 6.4.1 的操作判据是先找 Head,再区分前置修饰中的否定、比较、加强/减弱,如 not so very much more easily。后置嵌入主要补充比较标准,语义上常关联 more/as/too;它与中心语和修饰语的逻辑切分不必完全重合。
连词词组(conjunction group)如 then/just then,可作连接性附加语;连词还分 linker、binder、continuative,具体联结任务须看小句级结构。even if, just as, not until, if only 可按 Modifier–Head(或 Head–Modifier)分析;as soon as, in case, by the time, nevertheless, in so far as 可作为语法化的整体,再接受 just in case/almost as soon as 这样的修饰。
介词词组(preposition group)如 to/up to,整体仍相当于一个介词,在介词短语内部体现 Minor Process/Predicator,而非自动在外层小句中作主过程。right behind, not without, way off, all along 可修饰一个介词;in front of, for the sake of 等语法化形式可整体处理,再加 immediately in front of/just for the sake of。这些与下节的“介词加名词词组”是两个单位概念。
副词词组在小句中的经验功能(第 52 页)
| 次类 | 课件例句及全部列举项 | 判别问题 |
|---|---|---|
| manner: quality | (he treated the patient) more gently than most interns;skillfully, beautifully, elegantly, cautiously, surreptitiously, quickly, fast, slowly, suddenly;somehow, so, thus, how | 怎样做?行动的性质是什么? |
| manner: means | (they removed the growth) surgically;microscopically, computationally, manually;somehow, thus, how | 借什么方法/手段做? |
| manner: degree | (she loved him) deeply | 过程到什么程度? |
| location: time | (he treated the patient) yesterday, today, tomorrow;sometime;now, then, when | 何时? |
| location: space | (he treated the patient) upstairs, above, below, underneath, away, home, abroad, homeward, north;somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere;here, there, where, whence, whither | 在哪里/向哪里/从哪里? |
| extent: distance | (they walked) quite far;how far | 多远? |
| frequency | (they had to operate) again, often;how often | 事件发生多少次/多频繁? |
frequency 与下表 usuality 的形式可能重叠:前者描述经验事件的重复,后者评估在相关场合成立的常规程度。how far 中 far 是 Head,how 是 Modifier;more gently than most interns 的比较标准嵌入副词词组。词类判断不能替代功能判断。
语气、评论与语篇连接(第 53–54 页)
| 语气附加语次类 | 课件列举项 |
|---|---|
| polarity | (they did) not (walk very far);not, no, yes, so |
| probability | probably, possibly, certainly, perhaps, maybe |
| usuality | usually, sometimes, always, (n)ever, often, seldom, rarely |
| readiness | willingly, readily, gladly, certainly, easily |
| obligation | definitely, absolutely, possibly |
| time | yet, still, already, once, soon, just |
| typicality | occasionally, generally, regularly |
| obviousness | clearly, surely, obviously |
| intensity | just, simply, merely, only, even, actually, really |
| degree | quite, almost, nearly, scarcely, hardly, absolutely, totally, utterly, entirely, completely |
该表保留 DFG 的功能潜力分类,readiness/obligation 项必须在行动交换语境中解释。easily 可以是方式,“可以轻易做到”也可涉及准备/潜能;possibly 在请求中可降低要求,不能在脱离语境时永远判为义务。这也解释同一个 just 为什么可涉及时间或强度。
| 评论附加语次类 | 课件列举项 |
|---|---|
| opinion | personally |
| admission | frankly |
| persuasion | honestly, really, seriously |
| entreaty | please, kindly |
| presumption | evidently, apparently, presumably |
| desirability | (un)fortunately, regrettably, hopefully |
| reservation | tentatively, provisionally |
| validation | broadly, strictly |
| evaluation | (un)wisely, understandably, mistakenly, foolishly |
| prediction | surprisingly, unexpectedly |
评论附加语评估的是说话行为或整条消息,如 frankly 表坦言方式、fortunately 表可喜性;它们不是动作的速度、地点等环境。词汇也会有不同读法:hopefully 可作愿望评论,也可作某人的行动方式。
| 连接性附加语的逻辑语义 | 课件列举项 |
|---|---|
| elaborating 详述 | specifically, more generally, namely |
| extending 延伸 | additionally, moreover, furthermore, alternatively, however, nevertheless |
| enhancing 增强 | then, later, afterwards, soon, earlier, meanwhile;there;so, consequently, therefore;similarly, likewise |
第 54 页把这些归入语篇功能的连词词组。then/there/so 的同形经验用法仍须另外判别:时间地点定位、语气应答与语篇承接不是同一个功能。副词词组还可与介词短语复合,如 quietly and without any fuss,前提是它们在外层共同承担同一种功能(DFG 5: 2.3)。
八、介词短语:微型小句,不是介词的扩大版(第 55–58 页)
介词短语(prepositional phrase)从小句一端“收缩”而来,典型结构只有两种不同的功能:微型过程(Minor Process)与微型范围(Minor Range);在人际面向相应为微型谓体(Minor Predicator)与微型补语(Minor Complement)。它不是重复 Head–Modifier 的单变量结构。其范围通常由名词词组实现:同级单位作为内部成分时降阶(rankshift),因而典型的有范围介词短语涉及嵌入。
| over | the bridge | |
| 短语经验 | Minor Process | Minor Range |
| 短语人际 | Minor Predicator | Minor Complement |
| 类别与嵌入 | Preposition | Embedded nominal group |
课件第 55 页强调内外层分别分析。They travelled over the bridge 中整个 over the bridge 在小句层作空间/路径环境;the kitten [with white paws] 中 with white paws 降阶为名词词组的限定语(Qualifier)。in spite of this they kept hoping 可在语篇承接中作连接性附加语;they grew tired at times 中 at times 按通常性读法作语气附加语,而非必定精确定位某时点。
| They | travelled | over | the bridge | |
| 小句语气 | Subject | Finite/Predicator | Adjunct | |
| 小句经验 | Actor | Process: material | Location: path | |
| 小句主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||
| 短语内部经验 | Minor Process | Minor Range | ||
| 短语内部人际 | Minor Predicator | Minor Complement | ||
微型过程的类型及介词体现(第 56–57 页)
| 类型 | 次类 | 课件列出的介词/介词构造 |
|---|---|---|
| angle 角度 | — | to, according to, in the opinion of |
| matter 事项 | — | about, concerning, regarding, on, of, in |
| role 角色 | depictive/guise | as, in the form/guise/role/shape of, by way of;of,如 the state of Washington |
| role | resultative/product | into |
| accompaniment 伴随 | comitative positive/negative | with/without |
| accompaniment | additive positive | as well as, including |
| accompaniment | additive replacive | instead of |
| accompaniment | additive subtractive | except (for), besides |
| possession 领属 | — | of |
| location 位置 | spatial | at, on, in;near (to), by;to, towards, onto, into;from, away from, off, out of;above, below, under, behind, in front of, on top of;between, among, through, via, along |
| location | temporal | at, on, in;before, after, since, until, till, by;during, throughout |
| extent 范围 | — | for, throughout |
| cause 原因 | reason | through, from, because of, as a result of, for lack/want of, thanks to, by, for reason(s) of;of |
| cause | purpose | for, for purpose of, in the hope of, for the sake of |
| cause | behalf | for, for the sake of, in favour of, on behalf of;against(not + in favour of) |
| cause | client(参与者) | for |
| cause | condition | in case of, in the event of, in default of;without(if not) |
| cause | concession | in spite of, despite, in the face of |
| manner 方式 | means: agentive | with, by, by means of, from |
| manner | means: material | with, out of, of, from |
| manner | agent(参与者) | by (with) |
| manner | comparison | like, unlike;than, as |
这不是“介词词义一对一分类”。同样的 with/for/of 可体现不同关系,要结合过程与范围判断;by 可引入施事,也可表达手段或时间界限。原表另提示范围(Range)例子:play somebody at tennis, play beautifully on the flute, speak to somebody in Chinese;不能把所有介词短语统一降成“可随意删掉的状语”。
第 56 页把 the state of Washington 的 of 列入角色的关系表达;若按名词词组内部 Head–Thing 分类/命名结构分析,of 也可作结构标记,正如复习题 the month of March。功能角度与分析级阶要说清。regarding/concerning/following 虽有动词来源,在相应介词用法中却与 about/after 构成同类替换,不能仅据 -ing 就判成小句。
| 第 55 页及 DFG 对照例 | Minor Process/Predicator | Minor Range/Complement |
|---|---|---|
| over the bridge | over | the bridge:名词词组 |
| according to Peter and Mary | according to | Peter and Mary:名词词组复合体 |
| in spite of these circumstances | in spite of | these circumstances:名词词组 |
| according to | Peter and Mary | |
| 短语经验 | Minor Process | Minor Range |
| 短语人际 | Minor Predicator | Minor Complement |
| 类别 | Preposition group | Nominal group complex |
| in spite of | these circumstances | |
| 短语经验 | Minor Process | Minor Range |
| 短语人际 | Minor Predicator | Minor Complement |
| 类别 | Preposition group | Nominal group |
词类和词组功能并非一对一(第 58 页)
第 58 页回收全讲,按 primary/secondary/tertiary class 排列。下面完整展开原表的非空功能:
| 主要类及次类 | 词类细分 | 在词组中的典型功能 |
|---|---|---|
| nominal → noun | common | 名词词组 Thing、Classifier |
| nominal → noun | proper;pronoun | 名词词组 Thing |
| nominal → adjective | — | 名词词组 post-Deictic、Epithet、Classifier;少数构造参与动词词组 Event |
| nominal → numeral | — | 名词词组 Numerative |
| nominal → determiner | — | 名词词组 Deictic |
| verbal → verb | lexical | 动词词组 Event;V-ing/V-en 在名词词组中作 Epithet、Classifier |
| verbal → verb | auxiliary | 动词词组 Auxiliary |
| verbal → verb | operator | 动词词组 Finite |
| verbal → preposition | — | 介词词组 Head |
| adverbial → adverb | — | 副词词组 Head、Modifier;名词词组 Sub-Modifier;连词词组的(Sub-)Modifier;介词词组 Modifier |
| adverbial → conjunction | linker;binder;continuative | 连词词组 Head |
这个表也解释本讲开头的“形容词例外”:小范围的 keen/eager/willing 等构造承担情态/意态贡献,不是词类系统取消了 noun/adjective/verb 的区别。very 在 very quickly 中修饰副词 Head,在 a very tall boy 中则是形容词修饰项的 Sub-Modifier;math 在 math sums 中是名词类词,却承担 Classifier。先判断词类,再判断此处功能;两者相互制约但不能互相替代。
九、课件末尾的学术历史照片(第 59–64 页)
语法内容后,课件用一组照片展示系统功能语言学的学术交往史。第 59 页题为 Gang of Nine – 1979–1980 (China connection);第 60 页题为 Long, MAKH & Hu 1981;第 61 页题为 Hu & Long 1981 Graduation;第 62 页为 Ma & Hu 1981 Good-bye Party;第 63 页转到 31 年后的北京大学(2012),形成跨时间的学术联系对照。照片不是待标注的语法分析框,不另据人脸推测未标出的身份。第 64 页 Thank you! 结束本讲,原照片与题注均保留在逐页浏览器中。
课堂练习与复习题
以下先回答课件第 2 页三题,再把课件的重要语篇与图示改成可核对练习。课件未给出答案的部分标为“参考答案(本站整理)”;分析过程核对 DFG 第 5 章与 IFG4 第 6 章,功能标签保留英文。
复习题 1:单变量结构与多变量结构有什么区别?
复习题 2a:分析 Those famous first two dreadful long math sums in the exam
| Those | famous | first | two | dreadful | long | math | sums | in the exam | |
| 经验结构 | |||||||||
| 逻辑结构 | |||||||||
| 前置修饰的依存序列 | |||||||||
复习题 2b:分析 The month of March
| The | month | of | March | |
| 经验结构:IFG式 | ||||
| 逻辑结构 | ||||
| 分类表达内部 | ||||
复习题 3:名词词组的人际与语篇元功能怎样体现?
课堂练习 A:捕鲸回顾与鲸类报告的完整词组判定(第 21–23 页)
下面保留课件例文作为练习对象,不把其中的动物学陈述当作更新后的知识资料。找出限定动词词组;再把非限定分词、词组复合体与简单时态分开。
课堂练习 B:标出时态链,再从最深处命名(第 12、28 页)
| will | not | have | been going to | be | being | produced | |
| 多变量结构 | |||||||
| 系统选择 |
| It | has | been going to | have | been | being | fixed | |
| 语气 | |||||||
| 经验 | |||||||
| 主位 | |||||||
| 时态与语态 | |||||||
课堂练习 C:在不同级阶分别标注(第 4、50、55 页)
| Are | they | leaving | |
| 小句语气 | |||
| 小句经验 | |||
| 词组内部 | |||
| 主位 | |||
| but | he | forced | his face and his voice | to be | calm | |
| 复合体配列 | ||||||
| 语气 | ||||||
| 作格经验(使役关系过程) | ||||||
| 主位 | ||||||
| They | travelled | over | the bridge | |
| 小句语气 | ||||
| 小句经验 | ||||
| 小句主位 | ||||
| 短语内部经验 | ||||
| 短语内部人际 | ||||
本讲小测
- 1.多变量结构与单变量结构的核心区别是什么?
- 2.The month of March 按本讲分类性读法,哪项正确?
- 3.Are they leaving? 中 are 与 leaving 的关系是?
- 4.will have been going to be producing 有几次时态选择?
- 5.has been producing 的时态名称是什么?
- 6.多选哪些形式正确体现次级时态?(多选)
- 7.多选本讲的次级时态停选规则有哪些?(多选)
- 8.It’s been going to have been being fixed 中 being fixed 的贡献是?
- 9.Our children should have learned... 中的 should 与 have learned 分别体现什么?
- 10.多选哪些判断体现了本讲对情态的区分?(多选)
- 11.to be asking 为什么可以称为 present perfective?
- 12.多选关于否定形式哪些说法正确?(多选)
- 13.started to leave 为什么不宜分析为一个纯时态动词词组?
- 14.more quickly than we realised 中 than we realised 在哪里?
- 15.over the bridge 的内部分析哪项符合本讲?
原课件逐页浏览
讲义按页序覆盖:第 1 页课程信息,第 2 页复习题,第 3–15 页动词词组及双重结构,第 16–36 页时态与语篇,第 37–46 页语态、情态与非限定,第 47–50 页归一性及复合体,第 51–54 页其他词组,第 55–58 页介词短语和词类功能表,第 59–63 页历史照片,第 64 页结束语。图表释读、例句与完整语篇在相应段落及练习中展开;原图可在此逐页放大核对。
