第 12 讲 小句之上:小句复合体
从事件序列到小句复合体,掌握并列与主从、扩展与投射及复合与嵌入的判别。
“他下楼,走进厨房,烧水,然后把茶端上楼”不只是几个过程的清单。说话者把它们组织为一次连续行动;“他说自己会回家”则把回家这件事放在另一个人的话语之中。小句复合体(clause complex)研究的就是这种小句与小句之间的逻辑联结,而不是小句内部的主语、过程或主位。
本页依赖良涛老师第 12 讲课件的顺序整理,对应 IFG4 第 7 章和 DFG 第 6 章。可与全书第 7 章笔记对读,再到DFG 第 6 章练习检验分析。下面保留课件各表的例句,把图中省略的依赖层次与判别过程展开说明。
本讲提纲
- 小句复合体
- 定位与语义作用
- 同级复合,不添级阶
- 事件序列与对话语步
- 配列 TAXIS
- 并列:1、2、3
- 主从:α、β、γ
- 分块与递归
- 逻辑语义关系
- 扩展
- 详述 =
- 延伸 +
- 增强 ×
- 投射
- 话语 “ 与思想 ‘
- 引述与转述
- 命题与提议
- 扩展
- 复合与嵌入
- 有级阶与降阶
- 名词组中的嵌入
- 副词组中的比较
- 定位与语义作用
小句复合体不是新增的语法级阶(课件第 1–2 页)
小句的主语(Subject)、限定成分(Finite)、补语(Complement)各担任不同功能,这种配置是多变量结构(multivariate structure)。小句复合体则不断把同一类单位——小句——联结到另一个小句,属于单变量结构(univariate structure):基本关系可以递归延长,但不因此产生一个更高的语法级阶(rank)。
课件图的传统方案把 sentence 放在 clause 上方,像“小句包含词组”一样理解“句子包含小句”;IFG 的方案把 complexing 放在小句级阶旁边,小句沿同一级阶横向复合。英语书写句(sentence)主要是正字法/书写系统的单位,用来体现小句复合体;“简单句”可以看作只有一个小句的极限情况。不能把这种常见的体现关系误写成“句子是小句之上的语法单位”。
IFG4 7.1.3 还提醒,标点可以被修辞性使用。例如一段经验内容可以被分成短促片段;口语又没有句号。因此,书写句的边界是重要线索,却不是脱离语法、语调与语篇的万能定义。
把事件流组织成序列(课件第 3–5 页)
经验意义中的构型(figure)由过程、参与者与环境构成;语义序列(sequence)把多个构型联结起来。小句复合体通常把整体事件流中的一段组织成叙事的子情节、操作程序的子步骤,或推理的一步。从人际角度,它也能把相关语步(move)组成语步复合体(move complex)。同一个复合体可以包含许多小句,但不必覆盖整个情节或整个对话。
图中的波浪线是未被语法切分的事件流;方框是被选择出来的过程配置,箭头标示配置之间的联结。课件叙事例的全部行动依次是:
| 次序 | 课件的过程配置 | 在情节中的作用 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | He ran downstairs | 下楼,启动行动 |
| 2 | splashed into the flood (‘Christ!’) | 趟入积水,夹有惊呼 |
| 3 | hurried into the kitchen | 赶进厨房 |
| 4 | put a kettle on the gas | 放水壶烧水 |
| 5 | rummaged for brandy | 翻找白兰地 |
| 6 | found a half bottle of whisky | 找到半瓶威士忌 |
| 7 | saw a hot water bottle hanging on the back of the door | 看见门后的热水袋 |
| 8 | filled it | 装满热水袋 |
| 9 | made tea | 泡茶 |
| 10 | poured in a dollop of whisky | 倒入一点威士忌 |
| 11 | carried them upstairs | 把东西带上楼,结束这一行动段 |
这些配置按“接着”的时间关系组织,后项重复的 He 可以不再显现。惊呼不是新添的一步操作;hanging on the back of the door 也不能仅凭有动词形式就直接算成主行动链的下一项。先识别有级阶的小句(ranking clause),再分析链条。
第 5 页把同样的资源用于程序。烹饪例是 Heat remaining oil in same pan → add salmon → (cook → until lightly browned) → remove from pan. 主要行动链是加热、加入、烹调、取出;括号中的 until lightly browned 给烹调设置时间终点,不是与“取出”同层的新操作。
另一例是带分支的算法,课件将条件与操作合成嵌套的子复合体:
If no successors were generated in (3),
then label node n₀ unsolvable,
and (if the unsolvability of n makes any of its ancestors unsolvable,
label these ancestors unsolvable),
and (if the start node is labeled unsolvable,
exit with failure),
and remove from OPEN any nodes with an unsolvable ancestor.最外层条件管辖整个后续操作块;“祖先不可解”和“起始结点不可解”分别进入自己的条件—操作块。只按顺序编号会丢掉条件的辖域。课件原排版中的结点记号在这里排为 n₀;识别这种层级不依赖结点变量的具体名字。
叙事还必须表达人物的言说与意识,因而引入投射(projection)。课件的 Calypso knew → that her aunt knew → she knew → how unwelcome Richard would be in Enderby Street 是层层进入他人意识的链,不是四件事情先后发生。‘You will have to go to hospital’, ← said Dr. Smith 中,医生的话先出现,交代来源的小句后出现;箭头仍指向被投射的内容。
课件新闻例也展示这种层级:Ms Lyn Goldsworthy said → both the tourism and fishing industries at W would be affected by the drilling 标出消息来源;‘The world now knows → it has a global warming problem,’ ← Ms Goldsworthy said 在引述的话语内又嵌套心理投射;A spokeswoman for BHP Petroleum said yesterday → she did not know → when drilling would begin 则在外层言语投射内放入“不了解”的心理投射。新闻作者不是无条件担保所有内容,而是在语法中交代“谁说/谁知道”。
配列:地位关系与分块(课件第 6–11 页)
每处小句联结(clause nexus)都要回答两个问题:两项地位是否相等?它们的意义如何相关?前一问题由配列(taxis)回答,后一问题由逻辑语义类型(logico-semantic type)回答。图中 she said that she was happy 与 she said ‘I am happy’ 都是投射,分别采用主从和并列;because she’d passed, she was happy 与 she’d passed, so she was happy 都是因果扩展,也分别采用主从和并列。
每一处小句联结都同时选择配列和逻辑语义类型;嵌套时在新的联结层重新选择。这里显示核心系统,未穷尽各分支的精密分类。
从左向右点击选项,每一次点击都是一次语法选择。
所选特征的结构体现会汇总在这里。
选到带例句的特征时,这里会给出例句。
这个交互网络把两套选择并置。不要把“并列”等同于“添加”,或把“主从”等同于“因果”:各配列类型都能与不同逻辑语义关系交叉。
同一机制可以出现在不同级阶
TAXIS 关心的是组成复合体的单位之间如何相互依赖,不专属于小句。课件各例中的括号只是补足外层语境:
| 复合的单位 | 课件例句 | 应观察的部分 |
|---|---|---|
| 形容词 | the black and white kitten | black 与 white,不是两个小句 |
| 名词组 | the old man and his dog, Rover... | the old man 与 his dog;Rover 又说明 dog |
| 名词组/介词短语 | (I’ll take) the blue shirt instead of the red one | 衣服选择之间的关系 |
| 副词组/介词短语 | (he threw it) enthusiastically but without skill | 两种方式表达之间的对照 |
| 介词短语 | (he drove) from Sydney to Canberra | 成对组织的路径起点与终点 |
| 动词组 | (they) began to sing | began 与 to sing 组成过程的阶段结构 |
最后一例尤其重要:they began to sing 通常是一小句,其过程由动词组复合体(verbal group complex)体现,不能拆成 they began 与 to sing 两个小句。分析“之上”以前,先确认没有把“之下”的复合误认成小句复合。
并列与主从不是位置标签
并列(parataxis)是地位相等的单位联结。课件用下列四对小句说明,同等地位并不要求意义相同:
| 首项 | 后续项 | 完整关系 |
|---|---|---|
| He looked terrible; | his clothes were crumpled and dirty. | 1 =2:细化外貌 |
| Miriam was somewhat scared by the wind, | but the lads enjoyed it. | 1 +2:对照添加 |
| He hated her, | for she seemed in some way to make him despise himself. | 1 ×2:给出原因 |
| He replied quickly, | ‘I can’t complain.’ | 1 “2:引述话语 |
数字 1、2、3 记录并列项的出现次序。下面的河流例是依据 DFG 补充的编号练习;“能独立”说的是潜能,后项可以因省略而不具备完整表面形式。
| The rivers overflow, | the streets become rivers | and everything is soaked. | |
| TAXIS | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 级阶 | ranking clause | ranking clause | ranking clause |
主从(hypotaxis)则存在支配项(dominant)与依赖项(dependent)。课件第 8 页列出的四例依次为:
| 支配项 α | 依赖项 β | 逻辑语义关系 |
|---|---|---|
| They spoke to Dr Liu, | who was an ear, nose and throat specialist. | =β:非限定性详述 |
| The man rarely left the village | apart from visiting his sister in York once a month. | +β:排除/例外 |
| I can do my best things | when you sit there in your rocking chair. | ×β:时间增强 |
| He explained | that there was no possibility of a new lease. | “β:转述话语 |
α 标支配项,β 标依赖项,γ 可标依赖于 β 的下一项。依赖小句可以是限定式,也可以是 apart from visiting... 这样的非限定式。As they walked along the dark fen meadow, he watched the moon 应写 ×β α:先出现的不必是 α。
看辖域:链条可以分块,不只一条线
I don’t mind if you leave as soon as you’ve finished as long as you’re back when I need you 的图先把前三句合成一块,再让 as long as... 引出的后一块依赖于它。前块内部是“不介意—如果你走—一做完”;后块内部是“你回来—当我需要你”。不同层次可以重新使用 α、β,不能把图上所有 α 看作几个互不相关的主句。
| I don’t mind | if you leave | as soon as you’ve finished | as long as you’re back | when I need you. | |
| 外层条件 | α | ×β | |||
| 第一块内部 | α | ×β | ×γ | ||
| 第二块内部 | α | ×β | |||
第 10 页的购物例把三项并列与目的—时间依赖链混合起来:
| We’re going to Childworld | and we’re going to buy some diapers for Stephen and Emily | and we’re going to buy an intercom system | so that we can hear Stephen in different parts of the house | whenever he cries. | |
| 外层并列 | 1 | +2 | +3 | ||
| 第三项依赖链 | α | ×β | ×γ | ||
前两项分别是去 Childworld 和买尿布;第三项是“买对讲系统—为了听见 Stephen—每逢他哭”的整个块。so that 的目的依赖于购买,whenever 的时间依赖于听见,因此不能把末两句机械记成并列的 4、5。
| Morel went to bed in misery, | and Mrs Morel felt | as if she were numbed by some drug, | as if her feelings were paralysed. | |
| 外层并列 | 1 | +2 | ||
| 第二项内部主从 | α | ×β | ||
| 依赖块内部详述 | 1 | =2 | ||
第 10–11 页 Morel 例的外层是 1 +2;第二项内部是 α ×β;β 本身又由两个并列小句组成,第二个“情感瘫痪”重述第一个“仿佛被药麻木”,可细标 1 =2。框图中的 i.e. 是释义提示,不是原句另有一个显性连接词。完整标签必须保留所在层,不宜只给每句贴一个孤立号码。
扩展之一:详述(课件第 12–13 页)
扩展(expansion)包括详述(elaboration)、延伸(extension)和增强(enhancement)。详述记 =,核心是对同一内容重说、举例或进一步说清楚,而不是加上一个同等的新事件。
| He | looked | a fright; | his clothes | were | damp, dirty and torn. | |
| 配列与逻辑语义 | 1 | =2 | ||||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | Theme | Rheme | ||
| 语气功能 | Subject | Finite/Predicator | Complement | Subject | Finite | Complement |
| 及物性 | Carrier | Process: relational | Attribute | Carrier | Process: relational | Attribute |
第 12 页 He looked a fright; his clothes were damp, dirty and torn 用衣服的具体状况细化“吓人的样子”。另一例是 She didn’t like the character she was playing; she hated her self-confidence:后句说明不喜欢所扮角色的哪一点,故课件记 1 =2;she was playing 则限定 character,是名词组内嵌入,不能因有一个动词就加入这条并列链。
并列详述在书写中经常只用冒号或分号;但标点不是意义标签,仍要能解释“后句怎样重述或具体化前句”。IFG4 7.4.1 区分重述、举例与澄清,常可试加 that is、for example、more precisely 检验,不过不要为了套标签强加不存在的意义。
主从详述常由非限定性关系小句(non-restrictive relative clause)体现:They were now in the bare country of stone walls, which he loved 中后句补充说明那片地方;The accident left him with two broken front teeth, which was such a shame 中后句评价的是事故造成的整个局面。两者都是 α =β,不是为名词选择“是哪一个”的限定语。
| His mother, | who | had | been watching | them | all evening, | made her way over. | |
| 主从详述 | α… | << =β >> | …α | ||||
| 两个小句的主位 | Theme | Theme | Rheme | Rheme | |||
| 语气功能 | Subject | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Complement | Adjunct | Finite/Predicator + Residue |
His mother, who had been watching them all evening, made her way over 线性上把 α 打断,记为 α… << =β >> …α。穿插(inclusion)不等于嵌入(embedding):母亲的身份已经确定,who 小句另作补充说明。口语中的独立调群与语调协和(tone concord)、书写中的逗号或破折号,都能支持这种分析;更根本的证据是它不承担“挑出哪位母亲”的功能。
扩展之二:延伸(课件第 14 页)
延伸把另一内容加入、对照、替换、排除或作为选择项,记 +。课件概括为添加(addition,含对照/转折)与变换(variation);依据 IFG4 7.4.2 的精细分类,还应把选择(alternation)与添加、变换并列,不能把所有 or 都算成添加。
| The beef animal | is | the buffalo | and | its meat | is | surprisingly tender. | |
| 并列延伸 | 1 | +2 | |||||
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | Textual Theme | Topical Theme | Rheme | ||
| 及物性 | Value | Process: relational | Token | Carrier | Process: relational | Attribute | |
The beef animal is the buffalo and its meat is surprisingly tender 的第二句新增肉质属性,记 1 +2。最常见的并列标记是 and, nor, but, or,分别可以表达正向添加、否定添加、对照添加与选择;but 若突出“尽管如此”的反预期,也可能需要增强的读法,不能只凭词表作判定。
| The idea of relativity | did not | originate | with Einstein, | but | [it] | goes back | to Newton. | |
| 并列对照添加 | 1 | +2 | ||||||
| 语气功能 | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Adjunct | Subject: ellipsed | Finite/Predicator | Adjunct | |
| 级阶 | ranking clause | ranking clause | ||||||
The idea of relativity did not originate with Einstein, but [it] goes back to Newton 表明后续并列小句可以省略 Subject;这里方括号中的 it 是分析时恢复的成分,不是原句必须出现的词。两个独立过程和可恢复的主语支持 1 +2,不是把 goes back 降成第一个动词组的组成部分。
主从延伸的典型标记有 whereas, instead of, except for, apart from, as well as。whereas 可引出限定式对照小句;其余常带非限定式,分别涉及替代、排除和添加。例如 instead of complaining 是另选行为而非“为了不抱怨”的目的。主从延伸较并列延伸少见,但它不是空缺类别。
扩展之三:增强及扩展总表(课件第 15–16 页)
增强(enhancement)给另一小句增加时间、地点、方式、原因或条件性限定,记 ×,课件写作 X。原因还可细分理由、目的、结果;条件可区分正条件、负条件和让步条件。主从增强很常见;so、(and) then 也可以构成并列增强,所以“有因果”不意味着“一定有 β”。
| They | dried | their clothes | in the wind. | |
| 级阶 | one ranking clause | |||
| 及物性 | Actor | Process: material | Goal | Circumstance: Manner |
| 主位 | Theme | Rheme | ||
| They | dried | their clothes | by | hanging | them | on branches | in the wind. | |
| 主从增强 | α | ×β | ||||||
| 及物性 | Actor | Process: material | Goal | Process: material | Goal | Circumstance: Location | Circumstance: Manner | |
| 级阶 | finite ranking clause | non-finite ranking clause | ||||||
第 15 页对比 They dried their clothes in the wind 与 They dried their clothes by hanging them on branches in the wind。前例只有一个小句,课件把风作为晾干的手段,分析为方式环境(Circumstance: Manner);后例的 hanging 构成过程,带有目标(Goal)them 和环境成分,因此 by hanging... 是非限定依赖小句,整句为 α ×β。意义近似并不表示级阶一样。IFG4 7.1.2 把环境短语、小句复合和跨句衔接看作不同程度的语法整合。
下面完整转写总表中的扩展例,以便离开图片仍能核对:
| 类型 | 并列例及标记 | 主从例及标记 |
|---|---|---|
| 详述:说明影响 | 1 Jogging on the streets is bad for you; =2 it damages your feet. | α Jogging stresses your feet, =β which can cause serious problems. |
| 详述:具体化/补充 | 1 It was nothing serious; =2 it was just a small cut. | α I met Granny, =β who was looking very well. |
| 延伸:添加 | 1 They cleared the table +2 and washed the dishes. | +β As well as doing the shopping, α they cooked all the meals. |
| 延伸:选择/替代 | 1 Did they complain +2 or did they just keep quiet as usual? | α They just kept quiet as usual +β instead of complaining. |
| 增强:因果 | 1 She spent all her money on a car, ×2 so she couldn’t afford to go on holiday. | α She couldn’t afford to go on holiday ×β because she had spent all her money. |
| 增强:时间 | 1 Heat the mixture to boiling point, ×2 then add the milk very slowly. | ×β When the pudding has cooled, α remove carefully from the container. |
这张表要横着读:同一语义可换配列;也要竖着读:同一配列可表达不同意义。and washed 省略主语仍是并列,As well as doing 先出现仍为 β。分析时可以先问“同一内容再说一次、新添另一内容、还是限定何时/为何/怎样”,再用地位关系补齐双重标签。
投射:引述、转述、话语与思想(课件第 17–19 页)
投射通常把言语过程(verbal process)或心理过程(mental process)小句与其内容联结起来。被投射的小句不是当前作者直接描述的一个外部事件,而是被呈现为他人的措辞或思想:这是一种再表征(meta-representation),也称元现象(metaphenomenon)。需要分别确定投射层次和投射方式。
| 层次 | 并列引述(quoting) | 主从转述(reporting) |
|---|---|---|
| 话语(locution) | 1 They said “2 ‘he’s hopeless’. | α They said “β (that) he was hopeless. |
| 思想(idea) | 1 They thought ‘2 ‘he’s hopeless’. | α They thought ‘β (that) he was hopeless. |
引述以直接言语/思想的方式重演被投射内容,通常是并列;转述把内容依附于投射小句,通常是主从。that 可以不显现,不能因省掉 that 就把主从改判并列。反过来,也不能因为用了 said 就断定是直接引语:said 同样能转述。IFG4 7.5.5 还讨论自由间接引语,它交叉使用引述与转述资源;本讲四格是基本模式,不应被扩大成没有例外的机械转换规则。
话语是言语过程投射的措辞层内容,思想是心理过程投射的意义层内容。二者与是否直接引语交叉选择。课件第 19 页的 He told his aunt that he would write home regularly 是主从话语投射;He decided that he would take a little time off first 是主从思想投射。
| He | told | his aunt | that | he | would | write home | regularly. | |
| 投射 | α | “β | ||||||
| 及物性 | Sayer | Process: verbal | Receiver | Actor | Process: material | Circumstance: Extent | ||
| 语气功能 | Subject | Finite/Predicator | Complement | Subject | Finite | Predicator + Adjunct | Adjunct | |
| He | decided | that | he | would | take | a little time | off first. | |
| 投射 | α | ‘β | ||||||
| 外层及物性 | Senser | Process: mental | projected idea: not a participant | |||||
| 语气功能 | Subject | Finite/Predicator | Subject | Finite | Predicator | Complement | Adjunct | |
被投射的是命题还是提议(课件第 20–21 页)
命题(proposition)交换信息,提议(proposal)要求或提供行动。前面的 hopeless 例都是信息命题;命令、意愿、要求也能被投射。投射的内容不会因为改成间接表达就自动失去其言语功能。
| 投射层次 | 投射小句 | 课件中的被投射提议 | 判别依据 |
|---|---|---|---|
话语 “β | His aunt told him | (that) he should write home more regularly | should 表示行为要求,不是单纯预测 |
话语 “β | His aunt told him | to write home at least once a month | 非限定式转述要求 |
话语 “β | His aunt told him | not to forget | 对行动的否定要求 |
思想 ‘β | His aunt wishes | that he would write home more regularly | 表达姑妈的愿望 |
思想 ‘β | His aunt would have liked | him to write home regularly | him 是被投射小句显现的主语 |
思想 ‘β | His aunt expected | him to forget | 按课件语境作预期行为的提议分析 |
最后的 expect 也能在别的语境中表达认知预测;不能脱离上下文把这个动词永久划为“提议动词”。本表保留课件的提议读法,并强调用信息/行动的意义判断,而非只看动词词形。
| His aunt | told | him | to | write home | at least once a month. | |
| 主从投射 | α | “β | ||||
| 外层及物性 | Sayer | Process: verbal | Receiver | projected proposal: not a participant | ||
| 级阶与言语功能 | finite projecting clause | non-finite proposal | ||||
told him to write 的 to write 是要求的内容,不是“告诉他这一行为”的目的增强;其隐含主语从受话者(Receiver)him 回收。心理过程的 would have liked him to write 则把 him 显现在被投射小句中。无显性 Finite 不等于没有小句。
总表中的八个实例补齐了前面的格子,也展示投射小句可以后置:
| 层次 | 并列 | 主从 |
|---|---|---|
| 话语:提议 | 1 The babysitter said: “2 ‘don’t make a noise!’ | α The babysitter told us “β not to make a noise. |
| 话语:命题 | “1 ‘That’s ridiculous,’ 2 he snapped. | α He said to us “β that it was ridiculous. |
| 思想:命题 | ‘1 ‘That’s funny,’ 2 he thought. | α He thought ‘β we would enjoy it. |
| 思想:提议 | ‘1 ‘Don’t stop now’, 2 she thought. | α He expected ‘β everybody to help. |
并列中的数字仍按线性顺序:引述内容先出现,就可带 “1 或 ‘1,后面的投射小句是 2。主从中的 α 则仍标支配项,而不是按先后机械编号。投射内容本身还可形成复合体,因此不要在第一个引号处就停止分析。
复合与嵌入:先判断有没有级阶转移(课件第 22–24 页)
嵌入使小句充当另一个单位的组成成分,例如名词组的限定语(Qualifier)或中心语(Head);它降阶后不再作为外层复合体中的有级阶小句参与并列/主从。课件对照表的要点和全部例句如下:
| 意义 | 并列复合 | 主从复合 | 降阶嵌入 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 投射/事实 | He thought ‘I said those words.’ | He thought (that) he’d said those words. | He regretted [the fact] (that) he’d said those words. |
| 详述 | The boy didn’t wait; he ran away. | The boy ran away, which surprised us.;We saw John, who ran away. | The boy who ran away returned.;Whoever ran away returned. |
| 增强 | He packed and then he ran away. | After he had packed he ran away. | The best time would be [the time] after he has packed. |
最后一格的 after he has packed 限定显现或可回收的 time,整个单位作为参与者进入关系小句;不像 After he had packed, he ran away 那样以另一有级阶小句增强 ran away。方括号中的 fact、time 是课件提示可显现/可回收的名词,不是分析者凭空增加一项。
非限定性补充与限定性嵌入
| The boy | who ran away | returned. | |
| 外层级阶 | one ranking clause | ||
| 名词组内部 | Deictic + Thing | Qualifier: [[clause]] | |
| 外层及物性 | Actor | Process: material | |
| 外层主位 | Theme | Rheme | |
The boy who ran away returned 需要 who 小句决定“哪个男孩”,整个 The boy [[who ran away]] 是外层动作者(Actor)和主位(Theme)。Whoever ran away returned 的 whoever 小句自身作为中心语实现参与者,也不构成外层 αβ。相反,We saw John, who ran away 的 John 已确定,关系小句作新的一条补充说明。
DFG 6.3.3 的诊断可合用:限定性关系小句通常不分成独立调群,可使用关系 that 或符合条件的零关系词;非限定性详述通常有独立而协和的调群,书写有分隔标点,并可改述为“主句;另外,他/它……”。逗号支持分析,但有没有识别参与者的功能比“有没有逗号”更根本。
投射思想与先在事实
| He | regretted | (the fact) | that he’d said those words. | |
| 级阶 | one ranking clause | |||
| 及物性 | Senser | Process: mental | Phenomenon: fact | |
| 名词组内部 | Thing: explicit or recoverable | Qualifier: [[clause]] | ||
He thought that he’d said those words 把内容呈现为他的思想;He regretted (the fact) that he’d said those words 把一个先在事实构造成作用于意识的现象(Phenomenon)。认知过程通常投射思想,情感过程常把事实作为参与者,但这只是倾向,需要结构证据核对。可显现 fact、可由 it/that 回指、可在合适的被动或主位化变式中作为参与者,是嵌入的支持证据;He thought so 中 so 则回收被投射内容。不要把所有 that 小句都一概写成“宾语从句/Phenomenon”。
名词组里的嵌入:中心语与后置修饰
第 23 页表把投射、详述、延伸、增强放到词组内部观察。下表保留每一例的外层语境;[[ ]] 仅圈出嵌入小句:
| 语义类型 | 嵌入小句作 Head | 嵌入小句作后置修饰(Postmodifier) |
|---|---|---|
| 投射 | (The problem is) [[that he is negligent]]. | (The problem is) the fact [[that he is negligent]]. |
| 详述:所指对象 | [[whatever Wren built]] (was admired). | the gazebo [[that Wren built]] (was admired). |
| 详述:行动 | [[frying green tomatoes]] (can be fun). | the act of [[frying green tomatoes]] (can be fun). |
| 延伸 | 课件未列 Head 例 | the gazebo [[whose architect later became famous]] (was admired). |
| 增强:地点 | [[wherever Wren built the gazebo]] (is now a famous place). | the gazebo [[where they used to meet]] (was admired). |
| 增强:比较 | 课件未列 Head 例 | (There were) more flowers [[than they had expected to find]]. |
Head 列表示小句本身充当名词性中心;Postmodifier 列表示它修饰一个已经显现的名词。frying green tomatoes 把行动当作可评价的事物;whose architect... 通过 gazebo 与 architect 的所有/关联关系作延伸;where... 提供地点限定;than... 提供数量比较标准。内部有扩展/投射意义,不表示它就与外层主句形成扩展/投射联结。
“投射”一行属于广义投射/事实资源的比较。IFG4 7.5.6–7.5.7 进一步区分嵌入话语、思想与事实;不能仅因表头写 projection,就把每个 fact 小句标成自由的 “β 或 ‘β。
副词组里的嵌入:比较标准
第 24 页的四行分别为投射、详述、延伸、增强。Head 列各行都没有例子;Postmodifier 列只有增强有例:(he ran) more quickly [[than a man his age could be expected to]]。than 小句给 more quickly 提供比较标准,嵌入副词组;不是另加一个外层“他跑—某人被期待”的事件序列。投射、详述、延伸格的破折号表示本表不列这种副词组结构,不能从名词组那张表随意搬例填入。
课堂练习与复习题
课件第 25 页为空白,第 26 页为致谢结束页,没有另设课堂习题或复习题。以下题目均为本站依据课件例句整理,不是冒充课件原题;每题先尝试解释证据,再展开参考答案。
1. 为 Morel 例恢复三个分析层次
不要只写 1、2、3、4。判断两个 as if 小句分别依赖谁,并说明第二个为什么不是 γ。
| Morel went to bed in misery, | and Mrs Morel felt | as if she were numbed by some drug, | as if her feelings were paralysed. | |
| 外层并列 | ||||
| 第二项内部主从 | ||||
| 依赖块内部详述 | ||||
2. 穿插是否就是嵌入?
分析 His mother, who had been watching them all evening, made her way over,再比较 The boy who ran away returned。两者中关系小句对参与者身份起什么作用?
| His mother, | who | had | been watching | them | all evening, | made her way over. | |
| 主从详述 | |||||||
| 两个小句的主位 | |||||||
| 语气功能 | |||||||
3. 方式短语与方式小句的差别在哪里?
对比 They dried their clothes in the wind 与 They dried their clothes by hanging them on branches in the wind,指出后者多了什么语法潜能。
| They | dried | their clothes | by | hanging | them | on branches | in the wind. | |
| 主从增强 | ||||||||
| 及物性 | ||||||||
| 级阶 | ||||||||
4. 同一个 that 小句为什么会有不同地位?
比较 He thought that he’d said those words、He regretted (the fact) that he’d said those words、The problem is the fact that he is negligent。分别确定投射内容或参与者的位置。
| He | regretted | (the fact) | that he’d said those words. | |
| 级阶 | ||||
| 及物性 | ||||
| 名词组内部 | ||||
5. 把行动要求误判为目的会怎样?
分析 His aunt told him to write home at least once a month,再把它改成直接引述。改写后投射层次和言语功能有没有改变?
| His aunt | told | him | to | write home | at least once a month. | |
| 主从投射 | ||||||
| 外层及物性 | ||||||
| 级阶与言语功能 | ||||||
本讲小测
- 1.IFG4如何理解小句复合体与sentence?
- 2.多选每一处小句联结需要同时确定哪些系统?
- 3.As they walked along the dark fen meadow, he watched the moon. 哪种标注正确?
- 4.课件Morel例句两个as if小句的结构是什么?
- 5.He looked a fright; his clothes were damp, dirty and torn. 后句最适合什么关系?
- 6.多选His mother, who had been watching them all evening, made her way over. 哪些判断正确?
- 7.The idea of relativity did not originate with Einstein, but goes back to Newton. 为什么仍有两个有级阶小句?
- 8.They dried their clothes by hanging them on branches in the wind. by hanging...的分析是什么?
- 9.多选下列哪些属于增强而非单纯延伸?
- 10.关于投射符号,正确的是?
- 11.He told his aunt that he would write home regularly. 与 He decided that he would take a little time off first. 的差别是?
- 12.His aunt told him to write home at least once a month. 中to write...是什么?
- 13.多选下列哪些含嵌入小句,而不是只靠主从联結?
- 14.分析复杂语篇时,哪一个操作顺序最稳妥?
原课件逐页浏览
本页按课件第 1–24 页的实质内容整理,原例与原图均可在逐页浏览中对照;第 25 页空白,第 26 页致谢。概念、符号与诊断补充依据 IFG4 7.1–7.5,尤其 7.4.5–7.4.6、7.5.6–7.5.7 的嵌入讨论,以及 DFG 第 6 章 Orientation、Survey of options、Troubleshooting。继续练习时,把全书第 7 章的各类关系分别练熟,再进入DFG 第 6 章练习。
